Election 1912 Essay Example for Free

Election 1912 Essay In the election of 1912, candidates Woodrow Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, William Taft and Eugene Debs competed for the spot as President of the United States. Wilson represented the Democratic Party, Roosevelt, the Progressive, Taft, the Republican and Debs, the Socialist. Although there were four candidates in the running, most would agree that the real competition was between Wilson and Roosevelt. A few of the many issues during the time of this election concerned trusts, women’s suffrage and tariffs. Wilson thought that trusts, or big monopolistic businesses, should be eliminated all together, while Roosevelt wanted to place limits on them. Roosevelt openly supported women’s suffrage and Wilson wanted individual states to decide voting rights for women. Wilson wanted to get rid of tariffs along with trusts, but Roosevelt wanted to keep them in order to protect wages. There was still an indecisiveness between state power and national power as we have seen in nearly every era preceding. Can’t Bring A Bull Moose Down In the first ad, the audience we were trying to address was the everyday, common men. We felt that people could relate to facing hard times and adversities and overcoming them. As common people ourselves we found these acts admirable and felt that the common man of 1912 would have viewed them the same way. This ad is supposed to show viewers about how persistence is an important quality in a president and how Roosevelt clearly showed that quality when he kept speaking for 90 minutes after being shot in the chest. This way, viewers will know that Roosevelt will be persistent in his original and elected beliefs when making decisions for their country. What Women Want The audience we were trying to address in the second ad were women. Although women did not have voting rights, they still had a fair amount of political pull. The issue of voting rights would have been a very important one to women everywhere at the time and the fact that Wilson did not even acknowledge them was an issue, whereas Roosevelt supported women’s suffrage in his campaign. The message of this ad tried to get voters to retract support for Wilson because he didn’t encourage women’s rights and support Roosevelt because he did.

What Are The Concepts Of Thermochemistry Environmental Sciences Essay

What Are The Concepts Of Thermochemistry Environmental Sciences Essay The beginnings of modern thermochemistry, though made independently of the doctrine of the conservation of energy, are practically contemporaneous with the recognition of that law, and without it the science could scarcely have reached the degree of development which it rapidly attained. Thomas Andrew and, especially Hess were the first who systematically investigated thermochemical effects in solution, and arrived at conclusions from their experimental data which still possess validity. Andrews, for example, found that when a series of acids were under similar conditions used to neutralize a given amount of a base, the quantity of heat evolved on the neutralization was the same in all cases. Hess, from his work, arrived at the converse conclusion, that when a series of bases were used to neutralize a given amount of an acid, the heat of neutralization was always the same. Both of these statements are correct when the powerful mineral acid and bases are considered, exceptions only ar ising when weak acids and bases are employed. Again, Andrews discovered that when one metal displaces another from solution of its salts (e.g. zinc with solutions of copper salts), the thermal effect is practically independent of the nature of the acid radical in the salt employed. Andrews likewise found that when the heat evolved on. the displacement from its salts of a metal M by a metal M is added to the heat of displacement of another metal M by M, the sum is equal to the heat which is evolved on the direct displacement of M from its salts by M. This affords an example of a principle which had been stated by Hess in a very general form under the name of the Law of Constant Heat Sums namely, that the thermal effect of a given chemical action is the same, independently of the character and number of the stages in which it takes place. Thus, in the above example, it is immaterial whether M displaces M from its salt directly, or whether M first displaces M, which is then used to di splace M. This important principle is a direct consequence of the law of the conservation of energy, but was discovered independently by Hess from accurate experiment. Oxidation of Zn to ZnO . . 5291 units à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ S to SO 3 . 6384 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Dissolution of SO 3 in much water. .. . . 2566 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ ZnO in the resulting aqueous H2S04. 1609 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ 1585 o à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Deduct heat of dissolution of anhydrous ZnSO 4 . . 11 93 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Heat of formation of ZnSO 4 from Zn, S, and 40 = 14657 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Hess employed this principle to determine indirectly the heat of formation of compounds from their elements, when this magnitude, as is generally the case, was inaccessible to direct measurement. Thus the heat of formation of anhydrous zinc sulphate, ZnSO 4j which cannot be determined directly, may be arrived at by summation (in Hesss units) as follows: Heats of formation are still determined for the most part in a precisely similar manner. Hess also stated another principle on empirical grounds, which, although admitting of many exceptions, is of considerable utility and significance. It had been known long before his time that when solutions of neutral salts were mixed, and no precipitate resulted, the mixed solution was also neutral. Hess now observed that in the process of mixing such neutral solutions no thermal effect was produced that is, neutral salts in aqueous solution could apparently interchange their radicals without evolution or absorption of heat. These experimental results were generalized by him under the title of the Law of Thermoneutrality. After the investigations of Hess and Andrews, a great deal of excellent experimental work was performed by P. A. Favre and J. T. Silbermann, whose chief theoretical achievement was the recognition that the heat of neutralization of acids and bases was additively composed of two constants, one determined by the acid and the other by the base. This dedction harmoniz ed the observations of Andrews and of Hess previously alluded to, and also accounted satisfactorily for the Law of Thermoneutrality. Julius Thomson was the first investigator who deliberately adopted the principle of the conservation of energy as the basis of a thermochemical system. His thermochemical work was begun in 1853, but most of his experiments were performed in the years 1869-82, the whole being published collectively, under the title Thermochemische Untersuchungen, in four volumes. Somewhat later than Thomson, Marcellin P. E. Berthelot began (in 1873) a long series of thermochemical determinations. It is to these two investigators and their pupils that most of our exact thermochemical data are due. Thomsen and Berthelot independently enunciated a generalization (commonly known as Berthelots Third Principle, or Principle of Maximum Work), which may be stated in brief as follows: Every pure chemical reaction is accompanied by evolution of heat. Whilst this principle is undoubtedly applicable to the great majority of chemical actions under ordinary conditions, it is subject to numerous exceptions, and cannot therefore be taken (as its authors originally intended) as a secure basis for theoretical reasoning on the connexion between thermal effect and chemical affinity HEAT IN THERMOCHEMISTRY . The existence of reactions which are reversible on slight alteration of conditions at once invalidates the principle, for if the action proceeding in one direction evolves heat, it must absorb heat when proceeding in the reverse direction. As the principle was abandoned even by its authors, it is now only of historical importance, although for many years it exerted considerable influence on thermochemical research. 2. From the standpoint of the law of conservation of energy, the relation between chemical and thermochemical action bears the following aspect: A given amount of any substance under given conditions possesses a perfectly definite amount of intrinsic energy, and, no matter what chemical and physical transformations the substance may undergo, it will, when it returns to its original state, possess the original amount of intrinsic energy. If we consider now the transformation of one system of chemical substances into another system under specified conditions, we shall find that in general the intrinsic energy of the second system is different from the intrinsic energy of the first. Let us assume, as is commonly the case, that the intrinsic energy of the initial system is greater than that of the final system. When the first system then is transformed into the second, the excess of energy which the former possesses must appear in the shape of heat, light, electrical energy, mechanical energy, c. It is for the most part a simple matter to obtain the excess of energy entirely in the form of heat, the amount of which is easily susceptible of measurement, and thus the existence of thermochemistry as a practical science is rendered possible. Since the intrinsic energies of the two systems under given conditions are invariable, the difference between them is constant, so that the heat evolved when the first system is converted into the second is equal to that absorbed when the second system is re-transformed into the first (cf. Lavoisier and Laplace, ante, 1). The total thermal effect, too, which is associated with the transformation, must be the same, whether the transformation is conducted directly or indirectly (Hesss Law of Constant Heat Sums), since the thermal effect depends only on the intrinsic energies of the initial and final systems. Since the intrinsic energy of a substance varies with the conditions under which the substance exists, it is necessary, before proceeding to the practical application of any of the laws mentioned above, accurately to specify the conditions of the initial and final systems, or at least to secure that they shall not vary in the operations considered. It is also a necessary condition for the application of the preceding laws that no form of energy except heat and the intrinsic energy of the substances should be ultimately involved. For example, when metallic zinc is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid with production of zinc sulphate (in solution) and hydrogen gas, a definite quantity of heat is produced for a given amount of zinc dissolved, provided that the excess of energy in the initial system appears entirely as heat. This provision may not always be fulfilled, since by placing the zinc in electrical contact with a piece of platinum, likewise immersed in the sulphuric acid, we can g enerate a current of electricity through the solution and the metallic part of the circuit. The reaction as before is completely expressed by the chemical equation Zn+H2S04 =ZnSO 4 H+ 2, the initial and final systems being exactly the same as in the first case; yet the amount of heat generated by the action is much smaller, a quantity of the intrinsic energy having been converted into electrical energy. This electrical energy, however, is equivalent to the heat which has disappeared, for it has been shown experimentally that if it is converted into heat and added to the heat actually evolved, the total quantity of heat obtained is exactly equal to that produced by the direct dissolution of the zinc in the absence of platinum. 3. The following conditions have to be considered as affecting in a greater or less degree the intrinsic energy of the initial and final systems: (1) Dilution of solutions. (2) Physical state. (3) Change of volume. (4) Allotropic modifications. (5) Temperature. (i) Generally speaking, there is a considerable thermal effect when a substance is dissolved in water, and this effect varies in magnitude according to the amount of water employed. It is only, however, when we deal with comparatively concentrated solutions that the heat-effect of diluting the solutions is at all great, the heat-change on diluting an already dilute solution being for most practical purposes negligible. In dealing, therefore, with dilute solutions, it is only necessary to state that the solutions are dilute, the exact degree of dilution being unimportant. It occasionally happens that a change in dilution affects the chemical action that occurs. Thus if concentrated instead of dilute sulphuric acid acts upon zinc, the action takes place to a great extent not according to the equation given above, but according to the equation Zn +2H 2 SO 4 = ZnS04+S02+2 H20, sulphur dioxide and water being produced instead of hydrogen. Here we have a different final system with a diffe rent amount of intrinsic energy, so that the thermal effect of the action is altogether different. (2) The physical state of the reacting substances must be considered, since comparatively large amounts of heat are absorbed on fusion and on vaporization . Thus the heat of fusion of ice(for H 2 O=18 g) is 1440 cal., and the heat of vaporization of water at 100 °, for the same quantity, 9670 cal. (3) The effect of change of volume against external pressure (due to production or consumpion of mechanical energy) may be neglected in the case of solids, liquids or solutions, but must usually be taken into account when gases are dealt with. Each grammemolecule of a gas which appears under constant pressure during a chemical action (e.g. hydrogen during the action of zinc on dilute sulphuric acid) performs work equivalent to 580 cal. at the ordinary temperature, which must be allowed for in the thermochemical calculation. A similar correction, of opposite sign, must be made when a gramme-molecule of gas disappears during the chemical action. (4) When a substance e.g. carbon, phosphorus , sulphur exists in allotropic forms, the particular variety employed should always be stated, as the conversion of one modification into another is frequently attended by a considerable thermal effect. Thus the conversion of yellow into red phosphorus evolves about one-sixth of the heat of combustion of the latter in oxygen, and so the knowledge of which variety of phosphorus has been employed is of essential importance in the thermochemistry of that element. (5) The influence of temperature on the thermal effect of a chemical action is sometimes considerable, but. since the initial and final temperatures, which alone determine the variation in the thermal effect, are in almost all cases within the ordinary laboratory range of a few degrees, this influence may in general be neglected without serious error. 4. Methods. In order to estimate the thermal effect of any chemical process, use is made of the ordinary methods of calorimetry, the particular method being selected according to the nature of the chemical action involved. In almost every case the method of mixture (see Calomitry) is employed, the method of fusion with Bunsens ice-calorimeter being only used in special and rarely occurring circumstances. As a very great number of important chemical actions take place on mixing solutions, the method for such cases has been thoroughly studied. When the solutions employed are dilute, no water is placed in the calorimeter, the temperature-change of the solutions themselves being used to estimate the thermal effect brought about by mixing them. Known quantities of the solutions are taken, and the temperature of each is accurately measured before mixing, the solutions having been allowed as far as possible to adjust themselves to the same temperature. The change of temperature of the solutions after the mixing has taken place is then observed with the usual precautions. It is of course in such a case necessary to know the specific heat of the liquid in the calorimeter. Thomsen by direct experiment found that the heat-capacity of a dilute aqueous solution diverged in general less than i per cent. from the heat-capacity of the water contained in it, the divergence being sometimes in one sens e, sometimes in the other. He therefore abstained from determining for each case the specific heats of the solutions he employed, and contented himself with the above approximation. Berthelot, on the other hand, assumed that the heat-capacity of an aqueous solution is equal to that of an equal volume of water, and calculated his results on this assumption, which involves much the same uncertainty as that of Thomsen. Since thermochemical measurements of this type may be frequently performed with an error due to other causes of much less than i per cent., the error introduced by either of these assumptions is the chief cause of uncertainty in the method. The calorimeter used for solutions is usually cylindrical, and made of glass or a metal which is not, attacked by the reacting substances. The total quantity of liquid employed need not in general exceed half a litre if a sufficiently delicate thermometer is available. The same type of calorimeter is used in determining the heat of solution of a solid or liquid in water. Combustion calorimeters are employed for observing the heat generated by the brisk interaction of substances, one of which at least is gaseous. They are of two kinds. In the older type the combustion chamber (of metal or glass) is sunk in the calorimeter proper, tubes being provided for the entrance and exit of the gaseous substances involved in the action. These tubes are generally in the form of immersed in the water of the calorimeter. In the newer type (which was first proposed by Andrews for the combustion of gases) the chemical action takes place in a completely closed combustion chamber of sufficient strength to resist the pressure generated by the sudden action, which is often of explosive violence. The steel combustion chamber is of about 250 c.c. capacity, and is wholly immersed in the calorimeter. To withstand the chemical action of the gases, the calorimetric bomb is lined either with platinum, as in Berthelots apparatus, or with porcelation, as in Mahlers. For ordinary combustions compressed oxygen is used, so that the combustible substance burns almost instantaneously, the action being induced by means of some electrical device which can be controlled from without the calorimeter. The accuracy of heats of combustion determined in the closed calorimeter is in favourable cases about one-half per cent. of the quantity estimated. 5. Units and Notation in thermochemistry The heat-units employed in thermochemistry have varied from time to time. The following are those which have been in most general use: Small calorie or gramme calorie. cal. Large or kilogramme calorie. Cal. Centuple or rational calorie. K. The centuple calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1 g. of water from o ° C. to C., and is approximately equal to ioo cal. The large calorie is equal to 1000 cal. In view of the not very great accuracy of thermochemical measurements, the precise definition of the heat-unit employed is not a matter of special importance. It has been proposed to adopt the joule, with the symbol j, as thermochemical unit for small quantities of heat, large amounts being expressed in terms of the kilojoule, Kj =100o j. (For the exact relation between these heat-units, see Calorimetry.) For ordinary thermochemical work we may adopt the relation 1 cal. = 4.18 j, or 1 Cal. = 4.18 Kj. Except for technological purposes, thermochemical data are not referred to unit quantity of matter, but to chemical quantities i.e. to the gramme-equivalents or gramme-molecules of the reacting substances, or to some multiples of them. The notation which Julius Thomsen employed to express his thermochemical measurements is still extensively used, and is as follows: The chemical symbols of the reacting substances are written in juxtaposition and separated by commas; the whole is then enclosed in brackets and connected by the sign of equality to the number expressing the thermal effect of the action. The chemical symbols stand for quantities measured in grammes, and heat-evolution is reckoned as positive, heat-absorption as negative. Thus [S, 20] =71100 cal. indicates that 71100 calories are evolved when 32 grammes of sulphur react with 2 X 16 grammes of free oxygen to form sulphur dioxide. It is of course necessary in accurate work to state the conditions of the reaction. In the above instance the sulphur is supposed to be in the solid rhombic modification, the oxygen and sulphur dioxide being in the gaseous state, and the initial and final systems being at the ordinary temperature. Again, the equation [2N, 0] =-18500 cal. indicates that if 28 grammes of nitrogen could be made to unite directly with 16 grammes of oxygen to form nitrous oxide, the union would cause the absorption of 18500 calories. When substances in solution are dealt with, Thomsen indicates their state by affixing Aq to their symbols. Thus [NaOH Aq, HNO 3 Aq] =13680 cal. represents the heat of neutralization of one gramme-equivalent of caustic soda with nitric acid, each in dilute aqueous solution before being brought into contact. One draw back of Thomsens notation is that the nature of the final system is not indicated, although this defect in general causes no ambiguity. Berthelots notation defines both initial and final systems by giving the chemical equation for the reaction considered, the thermal effect being appended, and the state of the various substances being affixed to their formulae after brackets. W. Ostwald has proposed a modification of Berthelots method which has many advantages, and is now commonly in use. Like Berthelot, he writes the chemical equation of the reaction, but in addition he considers the chemical formula of each substance to express not only its material composition, but also the (unknown) value of its intrinsic energy. To the right-hand member of the equation he then adds the number expressing the thermal effect of the reaction, heat-evolution being as before counted positive, and heat-absorption negative. The mass-equation then becomes an energy-equation. He thus writes S+02=S02+7110o cal., which expresses the fact that the intrinsic energy of the quantities of sulphur and oxygen considered exceeds that of the sulphur dioxide derived from them by 71100 cal. when thermal units are employed. The equation H2+12=2HI-12200 cal. expresses that under certain conditions the intrinsic energy of hydriodic acid is greater than the intrinsic energy of its component elements by 12200 cal., i.e. that hydriodic acid is formed from its elements with absorption of this amount of heat. Energyequations, such as the above, may be operated with precisely as if they were algebraic equations, a property which is of great advantage in calculation. Thus by transposition we may write the last equation as follows 2HI =H2+12+12200 cal., and thus express that hydriodic acid when decomposed into its elements evolves 12200 cal. for the quantity indicated by the equation. Ostwald has made the further proposal that the formulae of solids should be printed in heavy type (or within square brackets), of liquids (solutions, c.) in ordinary type, and of gases in italics (or within curved brackets), so that the physical state the substances might be indicated by the equation itself. Thus the equation Cl 2 -1-2KI, Aq=2KC1, Aq+12+52400 cal., or (C12) +2KI, Aq =2KC1, Aq+[12]-I-52400 cal., would express that when gaseous chlorine acts on a solution of potassium iodide, with separation of solid iodine, 52400 calories are evolved. 6. Heat of Formation. For thermochemical calculations it is of great importance to know the heat of formation of compounds from their elements, even when the combination cannot be brought about directly. As an example of the use of Ostwalds energy-equations for the indirect determination we may take the case of carbon monoxide. The following equations give the result of direct experiment  :- C +20 = CO 2+943 oo cal. CO+ O=CO 2 +68000 cal. If now it is required to find the heat of formation of the compound CO, which cannot be directly ascertained, we have merely to subtract the second equation from the first, each symbol representing constant intrinsic energy, and thus we obtain C+0 00= 26300 cal., or C+0=C0+26300 cal., that is, the heat of formation of a gramme-molecule of carbon monoxide is 26300 cal. As has already been stated, the heat of formation of a compound is the amount (expressed in thermal units) by which its intrinsic energy exceeds or falls short of that of the elements which enter into its composition. Now of the absolute values of intrinsic energy we know nothing; we can only estimate differences of intrinsic energy when one system is compared with another into which it may be directly or indirectly converted. But since the elements cannot be converted one into the other, we are absolutely without knowledge of the relative values of their intrinsic energy. This being the case, we are at liberty to make the assumption that the intrinsic energy of each element (under specified conditions) is zero, without thereby introducing any risk of self-contradiction in thermochemical calculations. This assumption has the great advantage, that the intrinsic energy of a compound relatively to its elements now appears as the heat of formation of the compound with its sign reversed. Thus if we consider the energyequation C +02 = CO 2+943 00 cal., and replace the symbols by the values of the intrinsic energy, viz. zero for carbon and oxygen, and x for carbon dioxide, we obtain the equation o+o=x+94300 cal. or x = 94300 cal. With knowledge then of the heats of formation of the substances involved in any chemical action, we can at once calculate the thermal effect of the action, by placing for each compound in the energy-equation its heat of formation with the sign reversed, i.e. its heat of decomposition into its elements. Thus if we wish to ascertain the thermal effect of the action Mg+CaO =MgO+Ca, we may write, knowing the heats of formation of CaO and Mg0 to be 131000 and 146000 respectively, 0-131000 = 0-146000+x x =15000 cal. Since heats of formation afford such convenient data for calculation on the above method, they have been ascertained for as many compounds as possible. Substances with positive heats of formation are termed exothermic; those with negative heats of formation are termed endothermic. The latter, which are not very numerous, give out heat on decomposition into their elements, and are more or less unstable. Amongst endothermic compounds may be noted hydriodic acid, HI, acetylene, C 2 H 2, nitrous oxide, N 2 O, nitric oxide, NO, azoimide, N 3 H, nitrogen trichloride, NC1 3. Some of these pass into their elements with explosive violence, owing to the heat generated by their decomposition and the gaseous nature of the products. 7. Heat of Combustion The thermochemical magnitude which is universally determined for organic compounds is the heat of combustion, usually by means of the calorimetric bomb. The relation between the heat of combustion of a hydrocarbon and its heat of formation may be readily seen from the following example. The hydrocarbon methane, CH 4, when completely burned to carbon dioxide and water, generates 213800 cal. We may therefore write CH 4 +40 = C02+2H20+213800. Now we know the heats of formation of carbon dioxide (from diamond) and of liquid water to be 94300 cal. and 68300 cal. respectively. The above equation may consequently be written, if x is the heat of formation of methane, -x+0 = -94300-(2 X 68300) +213800 x =17000 cal. This heat of formation, like that of most hydrocarbons, is comparatively small: the heat of formation of saturated hydrocarbons is always positive, but the heat of formation of unsaturated hydrocarbons is frequently negative. or example, ethylene, C2H4 j is formed with absorption of 16200 cal., acetylene, C 2 H 2, with absorption of 59100 cal., and liquid benzene, C 6 H 6, with absorption of 9100 cal. Since the heat of combustion of a hydrocarbon is equal to the heat of combustion of the carbon and hydrogen it contains minus its heat of formation, those hydrocarbons with positive heat of formation generate less heat on burning than the elements from which they were formed, whilst those with a negative heat of formation generate more. Thus the heat generated by the combustion of acetylene, C 2 H 2, is 316000 cal., whereas the heat of combustion of the carbon and hydrogen composing it is only 256900 cal., the difference being equal to the negative heat of formation of the acetylene. For substances consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, a rule was early devised for the purpose of roughly calculating their heat of combustion (J. J. Welters rule). The oxygen contained in the compound was deducted, together with the equivalent amount of hydrogen, and the heat of combustion of the compound was then taken to be equal to the heats of combustion of the elements in the residue. That the rule is not very accurate may be seen from the following example. Cane-sugar has the formula C12H22011. According to Welters rule, we deduct II 0 with the equivalent amount of hydrogen, namely, 22 H, and are left with the residue 12 C, the heat of combustion of which is 1131600 cal. The observed heat of combustion of sugar is, however, 1354000, so that the error of the rule is here 20 per cent. A much better approximation to the heat of combustion of such substances is obtained by deducting the oxygen together with the amount of carbon necessary to form C02, and then ascertaining the amount of heat produced by the residual carbon and hydrogen. In the above case we should deduct with II 0 the equivalent amount of carbon 5.5 C, thus obtaining the residue 6.5 C and 22 H. These when burnt would yield (6.5 X9430o)+(II X68300) =1364250 cal., an amount which is less than 1 per cent. different from the observed heat of combustion of sugar. Neither of the above rules can be applied to carbon compounds containing nitrogen 8. Heat of Neutralization It has already been stated that the heats of neutralization of acids and bases in aqueous solution are additively composed of two terms, one being constant for a given base, the other constant for a given acid. In addition to this, the further regularity has been observed that when the powerful monobasic acids are neutralized by the powerful monacid bases, the heat of neutralization is in all cases the same. The following table gives the heats of neutralization of the commoner strong monobasic acids with soda: Hydrobromic acid Hydriodic acid Nitric acid Chloric acid Bromic acid Within the error of experiment these numbers are identical. It was at one time thought that the greater the heat of neutralization of an acid with a given base, the greater was the strength of the acid. It is now known, however, that when weak acids or bases are used, the heat of neutralization may be either greater or less than the normal value for powerful acids and bases, so that there is no proportionality, or even parallelism, between the strengths of acids and their heats of neutralization . sodium carbonate- Na 2 CO 3.. . Na 2 CO 3, H 2 O . Heat of Solution. +5640 cal. +2250 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Heat of Hydration. +339 0 cal. Na 2 CO 3, 2H 2 0 . +20 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +5620 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Na 2 CO 3, IoH 2 O . 16160 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +21800 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ II. Sodium sulphate- Na 2 SO 4 +460 cal. Na 2 SO 4, H 2 O . 1900 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +2360 cal. Na2S04, IoH 2 O . 18760 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ +19200 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ 9. Heat of Solution When substances readily combine with water to form hydrates, the heat of solution in water is usually positive; when, on the other hand, they do not readily form hydrates, or when they are already hydrated, the heat of solution is usually negative. The following examples show the effect of hydration on heat of solution in a large quantity of water: io. Application of the Second Law thermodynamics to Thermochemistry. What is commonly understood by thermochemistry is based entirely on the first law of thermodynamics, but of recent years great progress has been made in the study of chemical equillibrium by the application of the second law. For an account of work in this direction see Chemical action. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Julius Thomsen, Thermochemische Untersuchungen (Leipzig, 1882-86); M. Berthelot, Essai de Mecanique Chimique fondee sur la Thermochimie (Paris, 1879); Thermochimie, donnees et lois numeriques (Paris, 1897); W. Ostwald, Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie, 2nd ed., vol. ii. part I, pp. 1-517 (Leipzig, 1893); M. M. P. Muir and D. M. Wilson, Elements of Thechemistry (London, 1885); P. Duhem, Traite de Mecanique Chimique (Paris, 18 97-99); J. J. van Laar, Lehrbuch der mathematischen Chemie (Leipzig, 1901). (J. WAL.)

Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper (2001) Framework for Diabetes

Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper (2001) Framework for Diabetes Reflective account, using framework from Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper (2001) of a patient with regards to a long term condition and identification of a learning need to be achieved during the module. This essay is reflective based on my experience while on a clinical placement. The aim is to demonstrate an understanding of my views encountered in practice using the Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper (2001) framework with regards to diabetes mellitus which is a long term condition. According to Bennett and Morisson (2009), Diabetes mellitus is a lifelong condition marked by high level of sugar in the blood and a failure to transfer this to the organs that need it. The framework will show how it has been used to reflect on the condition, what has been learnt and the outcome on current and future practice. It also based on learning needs to be achieved during the module. It was an eight week placement on an acute unit which consist of a male bay, one female bay and three side rooms. My mentor and I was assigned to the male bay. This was when I came into contact with Mr. A. Pseudonym will be used to conceal patient identity. Confidentiality will be maintained throughout in accordance with the Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008). Mr. A was a 64 year old gentleman who was admitted to a critical unit from Accident and Emergency (AE), in my third week of my first year as a nursing student but my second placement. He had several conditions inflicted on him. They were acute pulmonary oedema secondary to silent myocardial infarction (MI), acute kidney injury (AKI) and CKD. Past medical history of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), quadriplegic amputee and HONK. He was basically admitted for hyperglycaemic control It became clear during hand over that this was a challenging and interesting case for effective learning to take place especially as a student nurse. Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge, skills or ability as a result of experience (Bennett Morrison, 2009). However, I felt anxious as this was just my second placement for my first year as a student nurse and I did not feel experience enough to deal with all I was hearing about this patient. My first impression when I saw Mr A. was a sad one because of his quadriplegic amputee. I realised that hearing or reading about a condition and actually giving hands on care is different. According to Bulman and Schultz (2008), thinking can be intellectual, thus emphasising the importance of practical as well as theoretical for learning. My first encounter with Mr A. on the ward he appeared to be drowsy and somewhat confused from the conversation we had. For instance, his wife was sitting at his bedside and he told me he took his wife to a party last night. During the time he was mentioning he was hospitalise. Drowsiness can be a sign of hyperglycaemia as in Mr. A Case. As nurses and other health professionals, we are faced with challenging and unique situations in practice, therefore, by reflecting on these experiences it allows learning to take place and again flexible ways in which to respond to these situations (Burns Bulman, 2000). While caring and carrying out assessment of Mr A., it was noticed he had intravenous infusion (IV), urethral catheter, insulin pump, heparin infusion and central venous pressure line (CVP). I was assigned to monitor hourly observation because the patient was critical and this had to be done until they were stable, especially the blood sugar which was elevated. According to Dougherty and Lister (2008), maintenance of normal blood glucose should be within 4-7 mmol/l. I can remember at one point it was 27 mmol/l. Whenever I noticed any abnormalities in the observation I would inform my mentor. I noticed increase in insulin administration via pump when blood sugar level is elevated and decrease when lower readings. Also, the patient was unable to carry out self-care or assist in his care because of his quadriplegic amputee. He was totally dependent on the nursing staff to take responsibility for all his basic needs and to promote high quality care (NMC, 2004). However he was given the care that he needed with consent. For example, wash in bed and assisted with nutritional needs such as feeding. When food was given he would refuse, but with much encouragement on my part in a good way he would. I can remember Mr A. asking me to scratch his head because he was unable to. Strict fluid balance I maintained because the patient was reluctant to drink. I informed my mentor and I was advised to give at least 30 mls of fluids per hour. I asked Mr. A. what was his favourite drink, he told me tea. I remembered going to the kitchen after informing my mentor of my intention to make sure an eye was kept on him. The patient was also monitored using a water loo chart. This was used mainly because of his immobility and he was prone to pressure ulcer if proper care is not given. During one of my encounters while nursing Mr. A, I remembered him saying to me diabetes is not good because it leave him without limbs. At that moment I felt compassion for him. At the same time he said that to me, I was pricking his earlobe to monitor his blood sugar. I felt sad for him thinking about the pain he was going through pricking his earlobe every hour. At times I felt impotent because of my lack of experience and been unaware of how to deal with situations such as Mr. A condition. I was limited in my experience and it was my first hospital placement. I wanted to reassure patients, support my colleagues, and give sound advice but I did not have enough confidence and experience to do that. I didn’t know how to ask Mr. A. about the pain he was experiencing when pricking his earlobe, but I gained the confidence to approach him and ask to tell be about when his earlobe is been pricked. My reason for asking is because I noticed every time his earlobe was pricked he would grimace on his face He said it hurts and is painful. Mc Caffery and Pasero (1999) states pain is what the patient says it is. However, I have learnt something about myself. I have learnt basic communication skill especially listening just by sitting at Mr A. beside and listening to his conversations he would tell me about his country of birth Barbados and how he ended up living in Trinidad. I did not know that with just a few simple words of empathy and encouragement it would please and calm the patient. According to McCabe Timmins (2006), communication is the process of conveying information between two or more people. Communication is essential in building relationships with patients and gaining trust. To highlight how important communication is in the nursing profession, NMC identified it as being an essential skill and only if a student is competent in this skill they can go on and register as a nurse (NMC, 2007). Communication has been describe as being both simple and complex process. For communication to be effective, the sender has to be very clear about the purpose of the message (McCabe Timmins, 2006). The care the patient receive has direct potential to improve through reflective practice it helped to make sense of complicated situations and staff can become motivated and empowered. This has given me a chance to link theory to practice. The way I communicated with Mr. A., had a positive outcome for both of us in that all his needs were met, and I learnt effective communication helps in building trusting bond between patient and nurses (Almond Yardley, 2009).

Free Handmaids Tale Essays: The Struggle of Women :: Handmaids Tale Essays

The Struggle of Women in The Handmaid's Tale      The Handmaid's Tale   This is a futuristic novel that takes place in the northern part of the USA sometime in the beginning of the twenty-first century, in the oppressive and totalitarian Republic of Gilead. The regime demands high moral retribution and a virtuous lifestyle. The Bible is the guiding principle. As a result of the sexual freedom, free abortion and high increase of venereal diseases at the end of the twentieth century, many women, (and men also, but that is forbidden to say), are sterile. The women who are still fertile are recruited as Handmaids, and their only mission in life is to give birth to the offspring of their Commander, whose wife is infertile. The main character in the book is Offred, one of these unfortunate servants whose only right to exist depends on her ovaries’ productivity. She lives with the Commander and his wife in a highly supervised centre. Unlike men, women have been facing unique problems for centuries, and often women experience harassment and discrimination. In today's society, females are trying to combat their tribulations through lawsuits and protest rallies. Literature often deals with people being unable to articulate their problems. Often, unforeseen circumstances force people to conceal their true emotions. In The Handmaid's Tale, the main female characters find ways to escape their situations rather than deal with them. Offred from The Handmaid's Tale uses different tactics to cope with her situation. She is trapped within a distopian society comprised of a community riddled by despair. Though she is not physically tortured, the overwhelming and ridiculously powerful government mentally enslaves her. Offred lives in a horrific society, which prevents her from being freed. Essentially, the government enslaves her because she is a female and she is fertile. Offred memories about the way life used to be with her husband, Luke, her daughter, and her best friend Moira provides her with temporary relief from her binding situation. Also, Offred befriends the Commander's aide, Nick. Offred longs to be with her husband and she feels that she can find his love by being with Nick. She risks her life several times just to be with Nick. Feeling loved by Nick gives her a window of hope in her otherwise miserable life. Instead of proclaiming her feelings out loud, she suppresses them. The result is a series of recordings, which describes her life, and the things she wishes she could change. Free Handmaid's Tale Essays: The Struggle of Women :: Handmaid's Tale Essays The Struggle of Women in The Handmaid's Tale      The Handmaid's Tale   This is a futuristic novel that takes place in the northern part of the USA sometime in the beginning of the twenty-first century, in the oppressive and totalitarian Republic of Gilead. The regime demands high moral retribution and a virtuous lifestyle. The Bible is the guiding principle. As a result of the sexual freedom, free abortion and high increase of venereal diseases at the end of the twentieth century, many women, (and men also, but that is forbidden to say), are sterile. The women who are still fertile are recruited as Handmaids, and their only mission in life is to give birth to the offspring of their Commander, whose wife is infertile. The main character in the book is Offred, one of these unfortunate servants whose only right to exist depends on her ovaries’ productivity. She lives with the Commander and his wife in a highly supervised centre. Unlike men, women have been facing unique problems for centuries, and often women experience harassment and discrimination. In today's society, females are trying to combat their tribulations through lawsuits and protest rallies. Literature often deals with people being unable to articulate their problems. Often, unforeseen circumstances force people to conceal their true emotions. In The Handmaid's Tale, the main female characters find ways to escape their situations rather than deal with them. Offred from The Handmaid's Tale uses different tactics to cope with her situation. She is trapped within a distopian society comprised of a community riddled by despair. Though she is not physically tortured, the overwhelming and ridiculously powerful government mentally enslaves her. Offred lives in a horrific society, which prevents her from being freed. Essentially, the government enslaves her because she is a female and she is fertile. Offred memories about the way life used to be with her husband, Luke, her daughter, and her best friend Moira provides her with temporary relief from her binding situation. Also, Offred befriends the Commander's aide, Nick. Offred longs to be with her husband and she feels that she can find his love by being with Nick. She risks her life several times just to be with Nick. Feeling loved by Nick gives her a window of hope in her otherwise miserable life. Instead of proclaiming her feelings out loud, she suppresses them. The result is a series of recordings, which describes her life, and the things she wishes she could change.

Alarming Side Effects of Artificial Sweeteners Essay -- Exploratory Es

Alarming Side Effects of Artificial Sweeteners NutraSweet, Equal, Spoonful, and Equal-Measure are all brand names for aspartame, a low calorie sugar substitute used in more than 90 countries to sweeten foods and beverages. Aspartame is a synthetic chemical that is created through the combination of the amino acids phenylalanine and aspartic acid, and a small amount of methanol. Aspartame can be found in several products, such as soft drinks, over-the counter drugs, vitamin and herb supplements, instant breakfasts, candy, breath mints, cereals, sugar-free chewing gum, coffee, juice, and tea beverages, tabletop sweeteners, and gelatin desserts. This product may have seemed like a dream come true when it was first invented in 1981 because its use can substantially lower the number of calories in food and beverage products by substituting the place of sugar. Despite its desirable qualities, the use of aspartame has been controversial since its creation due to its negative side effects that have been linked to the use of the chemica lly produced sugar. Due to the ever increasing use of aspartame, researchers have discovered that aspartame has been closely associated with the function of the brain. In the human brain, there is a blood-brain barrier that acts as a system of specialized capillary structures that are designed to prevent toxic substances from entering the brain. Prior to birth and during the first 12 months of life, the blood-brain barrier is incomplete. The protective enzymes in a baby’s brain are still immature, and therefore are unable to effectively detoxify the excitotoxins, toxins that bind to certain receptors and may cause neuronal cell death when they enter the brain. This would mean that in the case o... ...t pain, headaches, equilibrium problems and manic depression. The Desert Storm incident proved that aspartame is indeed harmful when consumed in excess or when consumed in general. Overall, the consumption of aspartame is not so beneficial. The chemical component of aspartame may be broken down to chemical substances that are potentially harmful and may lead to symptoms such as headaches, vision impairment, hearing loss, memory loss, fatigue, dizziness, and eventually brain tumors. The sweetener may have been developed to lower the amount of calories and be a sugar substitute, but its creation has only produced medical attention. The consumption of aspartame should be limited or not be consumed at all in order to prevent symptoms from occurring. The creation of aspartame may not be so sweet after all. References: www.dorway.com www.webMd.com

Organizational Behavior Chapter Essay

Read chapter 1 (â€Å"What is Organizational Behavior†) in your e-text, answer these questions, and watch the chapter 1 quiz video for course mentor clarification. 1) Johanna Reid, a campaign manager at a child rights organization, recently started working on an illiteracy project. During the project, she needs to motivate team members to attain their project milestones and direct them through different phases of the project. Which of the following kinds of functions will these tasks be covered under? a) planning b) organizing c) scrutinizing d) evaluating e) leading Answer: E 2) Regina George works as a campaign manager in a not-for-profit organization in Hampshire. For the upcoming campaign against genetic engineering, she is networking with managers who are working on the issue of food safety. Through her network of contacts, she strives to gain information about the stakeholders in the food industry and other lobby groups. Which of the following roles is George most likely to be playing according to Mintzberg’s classification of managerial roles? a) figurehead b) leader c) liaison d) entrepreneur e) resource allocator Answer: C 3) The ability to understand, communicate with, motivate, and support other people, both individually and in groups, may be defined as ________. a) human skills b) technical skills c) conceptual skills d) cognitive skills e) analytical skills Answer: A 4) According to Fred Luthans and his associates, managers involved in traditional management activities undertook which of the following tasks? a) motivating b) socializing c) decision making d) training e) politicking Answer:C 5) According to Fred Luthans and his associates’ study of 450 managers, ________ made the largest contribution to the success of managers in terms of speed of promotion within their organization. a) networking b) decision making c) planning d) controlling e) staffing Answer: A

Power of Talk: Who Gets Heard and Why Essay

There is no particular way to communicate according the Deborah Tannen as communication is not just saying what you mean but how one communicates the meaning. Situation varies from one person to another. Language communicates ideas but a more powerful form of communication is social behavior . Language use is a learnt social behavior that allows us to negotiate relationships and it is influenced by cultural experience . How we talk and express ourselves may be interpreted differently in other cultures and members of the opposite gender . Deborah Tannen a linguist from Georgetown University did a research on the influence of linguistic style on conversations and human relationships and found that how we learn to speak as children affects our judgment of competence and confidence plus whether we get heard in a discussion later on in adulthood . She found that man and woman communicate differently and just like cross cultural communication, misunderstanding can occur. Women according to her research were often over looked when it came to opportunities for promotion because of their lack of self confidence as seen by their male bosses. But women, as Tannen proves have grown up in a different environment to their male colleagues and have learnt to communicate differently to men . This has sometimes been interpreted as being less competent and less confident . An understanding of these differences could lead to better and fairer working environment for both men and women . As children, girls and boys play differently. Girls are more likely to learn how to develop a sympathetic relationship with others and focus on common goals rather than differences. Girls tend to balances their needs with those of others to avoid seeming over confident or bossy . Boys are more likely to learn how to develop their status in society by playing in large groups of boys whose leadership roles are defined . They are likely to use language to communicate their needs and highlight their abilities rather than down grade them in an attempt to move up the leadership hierarchy . This social behavior is carried on into adulthood and into the wo rkplace resulting in both genders having different communication skills and expressing what they mean. â€Å"Men tend to be sensitive to the power dynamics of interaction, speaking in ways that position themselves as one up and resisting being put in a one-down position by others. Women tend to react more strongly to the rapport dynamic, speaking in ways that save face for others and buffering statements that could be seen as putting others in a one-down position.†. This means that women are more likely to down grade their ability and not want to seem as boastful whereas men are more likely to speak highly of their abilities by blowing their own horn . Humans have developed a conversation ritual that demands a certain type of response. Again, Men and women have quite diverse conversational rituals. Women tend to apologies more frequently to express concern and are likely to soften criticism to help the other person save face by being indirect in her feedback. They also ritually exchange compliment by taking the one-down position and expect the other person to understand the exchange ritual and pull them up again with compliments . Men on the other hand, avoid apologies because it puts them in a one-down position. They grew up looking for ways to put others down by criticizing and pushing themselves on top . So for a woman to engage in a compliment exchange with a man by taking the one down position, would find that he will not likely pull her up but rather pull her down further and provide an advice or criticism . This significant characteristic style can put women at a disadvantage in a workplace situation and be judged as lacking in confidence. It is therefore vital for people in management positions to understand the diverse communicative style of both men and women in order to take full advantage of talented staff. There is no one right way to communicate as communication depends on the situation, the culture and linguistic style of the people.